Afterlife Rituals
The ancient Egyptians believed that the dead were expected to have a full afterlife created by the provision of tomb contents that paralleled the activities of daily life. Some examples include small models of laborers carrying out daily activities, along with other necessities such as textiles and items of dress. These offerings would be spiritually activated in the mortuary ritual for the eternal use of the deceased in the afterlife. Textile offerings, such as linen, represent an important part of the owner’s estate and tomb assemblage. Many funerary texts reference specific types of textiles and clothing that were considered necessary equipment for the deceased in the passage into the afterlife.
In addition to being buried alongside the dead, linen held a significant role in ancient Egyptian spirituality, as it was closely associated with various gods and goddesses. In ritual practice, linen could be used as a carrier of celestial power when wrapped around statue representations of deities. If this linen were to be reused in mummification, it was believed to have the ability to transfer divine power from the gods to the deceased. The practice of wrapping and unwrapping linens, along with the abundance of linens found in tombs and burial offerings, highlight the spiritual importance of linen in ancient Egyptian afterlife rit
Model of a procession of offering bearers
Middle Kingdom, ca. 1981–1975 B.C.This wooden model depicting a procession of offering bearers was found in the tomb of the royal chief steward Meketre. The four offering bearers, believed to represent his children, are displayed walking along a narrow, yellow-coloured base, situating the scene in the desert on the way to his tomb. While the group is shown equipped with all necessary items for a proper burial and funeral ritual, the second offering bearer has been entrusted with balancing a stack of linen on his head. This evidence demonstrates the crucial role linen played in Egyptian burials, both functionally and spiritually.
Excavated by the Egyptian Expedition of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1920. Acquired by the Museum in the division of finds, 1920. (20.3.8)
Bibliography
Model of a procession of offering bearers: Middle Kingdom (ca. 1981–1975 B.C.). The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Available at: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544125 (Accessed: 26 November 2024).
Gable-topped Linen Chest
New Kingdom, ca. 1492–1473 B.C.This whitewashed chest is one of the three found in Hatnefer’s tomb. This chest was found with 30 linen sheets ranging in variety of qualities and weaves, as well as many containing ink inscriptions of the treasury, indicating that these linens came from royal storerooms. While it is believed that most of this linen had been used prior to being stored in Hatnefer’s tomb, all the sheets had been cleaned and all but one were folded into small bundles and carefully packed into the box.
Excavated by the Egyptian Expedition of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1935–1936.
Acquired by the Museum in the division of finds, 1936. (36.3.56a, b).
Bibliography
Gable-topped Linen Chest: New Kingdom (ca. 1492–1473 B.C.). The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Available at: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/545136 (Accessed: 26 November 2024).
Relief slab of Prince Rahotep sat before offering table
Old Kingdom, 4th Dynasty, ca. 2575-2551 B.C.This limestone panel contains an offering list belonging to Rahotep, the prince of the Fourth Dynasty and son of King Sneferu. On the right-hand side of this fragment, an inventory of linen is shown as part of the prince’s offerings believed to be a symbolic form of provisioning for the afterlife. These textile inventories first appeared in the late First Dynasty on funerary stelae and are considered the greatest body of textile and textile-related terminology in the early third millennium B.C. As they evolved, linen lists would specify textile quality, dimensions of individual pieces, and quantity to be offered.
Excavated at the Mastaba of Rahotep & Nofret, Meidum, Beni Suef.
Acquired by the British Museum through purchase from R J Moss & Co., 1898. (EA1242).
Bibliography
Limestone panel of Rahotep (early 4th Dynasty). The British Museum. Available at: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA1242 (Accessed: 26 November 2024).
Limestone relief slab from the tomb of Rahotep (4th Dynasty). The British Museum Images. Available at: https://www.bmimages.com/preview.asp?image=00035283001 (Accessed: 26 November 2024).
Jones, J., 2010. ‘The “linen list” in Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom Egypt: Text and textile reconciled’, in C. Michel and M.-L. Nosch (eds.) Textile Terminologies in the Ancient near East and Mediterranean from the Third to the First Millennnia BC. 1st edn. Havertown: Oxbow Books, Limited, pp. 81–109.
Copy of a tomb painting From the Temple of Seti I.
19th Dynasty (c.1306-1290 BC)This tomb painting depicts a priest at the Temple of King Seti I unwrapping linen strips from the statue of the god Amen-Re. These celestial statues were cared for daily, being wrapped in fresh linen in the morning and evening.
This linen was often produced within temple workshops and, once wrapped around the statues, was believed to absorb some of the deity’s power.
These linens were sometimes recycled and used for the mummification of the elite, such as royalty or priests. It was thought that the power of the gods would transfer through the linen aiding and giving power to the deceased for their journey to the afterlife.
Plate 7. The Disrobing of Amen-Re.
As part of the portfolio The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos.
Painted by Amice Caverly in 1933.
Bibliography
Gardiner, A.H. (1933). The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos. [online] Available at: https://archive.org/details/sethos1/page/n17/mode/2up [Accessed 30 Nov. 2024].
Riggs, C. (2014). Unwrapping Ancient Egypt. A&C Black.
The British Museum (n.d.). Ancient Egyptian Gods and Goddesses. [online] The British Museum. Available at: https://www.britishmuseum.org/learn/schools/ages-7-11/ancient-egypt/ancient-egyptian-gods-and-goddesses.
Hieratic Book of the Dead of Padimin Written on Linen
Late period - c.664 BCThis roll of linen from the British Museum features a section of The Book of the Dead - a detailed instruction guide helping navigate an individual’s journey to the afterlife. While often written on papyrus, this guide was also written on linen and buried within the tombs of the deceased.
For the ancient Egyptians, the afterlife was a paradise, however, reaching it was a long journey filled with dangers. The Book of the Dead offered protective spells and crucial advice for this journey. Filled with detailed illustrations, they were costly to produce, making them only accessible to the wealthy.
From Akhmim - purchased from Folio Fine Art Ltd by the British Museum in 1971. (EA10826)
Bibliography
Filer, J. and British Museum (2003). The Mystery of the Egyptian Mummy : Find Out All About Hornedjitef, an Ancient Egyptian Priest. New York: Oxford University Press In Association With The British Museum.
Taylor, J. (2010). What is a Book of the Dead? [online] The British Museum. Available at: https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/what-book-dead.
The British Museum . (n.d.). mummy-wrapping EA10826. [online] Available at: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA10826 [Accessed 30 Nov. 2024].
Papyrus of Embalming Ritual
Roman Egypt, 1st Century ADThis papyrus is one of only two papyri documenting the embalming process in Ancient Egypt. Composed in hieratic script with Demotic notation, it constitutes the final two pages of an earlier text, though it contains information on the process of bandaging the embalmed corpse. The text describes many of the rituals involved, such as embalming the head first using a specific type of linen acquired from Sais.
Excavated in Thebes, date unknown. Acquired by Louvre Museum, Department of Egyptian Antiquities in 1868. (E 5158).
Bibliography
Louvre Museum (n.d.) Papyrus of Embalming Ritual. Roman Egypt, 1st century AD. Papyrus, 15.7 x 42.5 cm. Available at: https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010003510 (Accessed: 25 November 2024).
Vogelsang-Eastwood, G.M. (2000) Pharaonic Egyptian Clothing. Leiden: Brill, pp. 182–190.
Burial Shroud
Byzantine Egypt, 5th-6th century ADThis large tapestry, executed in a flying shuttle, was used as a burial shroud in Byzantine Egypt. The object reflects an evolution of the use of textile in burials, with the ankh symbol being accompanied by a cross and a Greek inscription, ΧΜΓ – a common symbol among Mediterranean Christians. These symbols combined with the names Sarapion and Theon, indicating perhaps a votive purpose to the object.
Acquired by the Harvard Art Museums, Cambridge, MA. in 1975. (1975.41.28).
Bibliography
Bierman, I.A. (1998) The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 218–225.
Harvard Art Museums (n.d.) Burial Shroud. Byzantine Egypt, 5th–6th century AD. Linen textile, 221.5 x 148 cm. Available at: https://harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/288851 (Accessed: 25 November 2024).
Slab stela with linen lists
Old Kingdom, middle or late 4th dynasty.| This slab stela, excavated from the tomb of Setjihekenet in Western Giza, contains a list of linens included in the tomb. In the bottom-left section, a thousand pieces of linen cloth are recorded, divided into types of linen in the right-hand section. Peter der Manuelian suggests that intentional damage to the face of Setjihekenet and idmy falcons on the upper-right (representing a type of linen) suggest an attempt among her contemporaries to destroy the memory of the tomb-owner and prevent her from accessing these goods in the afterlife. |
Preserved in Egyptian Museum, Cario, Egypt. (JE 37726) (Cemetery G 1227).
Bibliography
Egyptian Museum, Cairo (n.d.) Slab stela with linen lists. Old Kingdom, middle or late 4th dynasty. Limestone, 37.5 x 52.5 x 7.8 cm. Available at: http://giza.fas.harvard.edu/sites/336/full/ (Accessed: 25 November 2024).
Papyrus from Book of the Dead of Nakht
New Kingdom, 18th DynastyThis papyrus is taken from a book of the dead mortuary texts comprised of magic spells and placed in tombs to protect the deceased in the afterlife. This excerpt is taken from the tomb of Nakht – a royal scribe and overseer of the army. This page contains a depiction of the flax harvesting process and involves spells and rituals related to plenty in the afterlife, reflecting perhaps the symbolic association between flax and prosperity or fecundity.
Acquired by The British Museum, London in 1888. (EA10471,13).
Bibliography
Allen, T.G. (1974) The Book of the Dead or Going Forth by Day: Ideas of the Ancient Egyptians Concerning the Hereafter as Expressed in Their Own Terms. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 122–129.
British Museum (n.d.) Papyrus from Book of the Dead of Nakht. New Kingdom, 18th dynasty. Papyrus. Available at: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA10471-13 (Accessed: 25 November 2024).
Fig 1. Textile inscription depicting deity
New Kingdom, 1550-1070 BC Painted linen image, depicting three women praising, potentially, to Goddess Hathor.
In Egyptian imagery, women are often illustrated in threes. As seen here in this specific textile inscription. Thus representing the Egyptian deity’s of Isis, Nephthys and Tayet, all of who are collectively connected by weaving. In addition to this collective role, they were also linked by their responsibility in carrying the pharaoh to the afterlife.
Tayet is named the goddess of linen, who is said to weave the mummy wrappings as recorded in the Pyramid texts: ‘While the Great One sleeps upon his mother Nut, your mother Tayet clothes you, she lifts you up to the sky in this her name of ‘Kite’; he whom she has found is her Horus. (Pyramid Texts, Utterance 417)’. Tayet was also said to be responsible for the making and dressing of the Gods clothes, a ritual which was considered significant.
Because of its relations to deities, linen was considered, divinely pure amongst the Egyptians. A text from the temple of Hathor writes about Tayet; ‘who purifies the Goddesses, who did spin of old and was the first to weave,” (Dendara IV, 125, 5-6).’
Alternatively Nephthys and Isis were seen to possess magical healing and protection abilities, namely through their ability to weave this magic, in the form of linen bandages. This could explain why linen was considered a necessary piece for the passage into the afterlife, as a way in which to clothe and protect mummies. Not only was linen considered crucial to the afterlife, but so was its seeds of flax, as discovered in the tombs of the Pharaoh’s.
The significance of linen in Egyptian afterlife rituals, established a continuing relationship between linen and religion, As demonstrated in the bible, during the burial of Jesus (Matthew 27, Mark 15, Luke 23 and John 20.)
Excavated from Deir el-Bahri (Thebes). Acquired by The British Museum, London in 1939.
Bibliography
https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA65348
https://henadology.wordpress.com/theology/netjeru/tayet/
https://archive.org/details/TheAncientEgyptianCoffin1/The_ancient_Egyptian coffin texts3/