Mummification
Mummification is arguably the most iconic practice associated with ancient Egypt. Before the deliberate embalming of the deceased, some bodies were naturally preserved by the desert’s hot, dry, and sandy climate. Shifting sands often exposed these remarkably preserved bodies, and it is believed that these discoveries inspired the Egyptians to think about what happens after death.
Preserving the body was important to the Egyptians, who believed that the heavenly afterlife mirrored life on earth, with one being reborn in paradise. Over thousands of years, the Egyptians developed the intricate process of mummification, which allowed them to preserve the bodies of the dead - and Linen played a large part in this process. Strips of linen were tightly wrapped around limbs and internal organs, both to cover and form the shape of the mummy. In addition to being wrapped on the body, linen was used as a base for plaster, on coffin cases and masks. Linen was a highly valued textile, due to its availability, spiritual significance, and its ability to absorb salts, oils, and resins - all essential for mummification.
There are still many mysteries surrounding mummification and burial practices - and especially the use of linen within this practice. The surviving objects below can offer us a glimpse into the impressive techniques and craftsmanship of the ancient Egyptians.
Mummy of an Unnamed Man
26th Dynasty- about 600 BCThis mummy at the British Museum displays the standard wrappings of an unembellished burial. Though it may look simple, the technique of mummification took thousands of years to refine and perfect.
The head and limbs were wrapped first, alternating with linen strips and larger linen sheets. After the desired shape of the mummy was achieved, linen bands were used to secure the wrapping in place, seen across this mummy’s chest and legs. The linen strips used for embalming would be sourced through recycled garments or household objects. However, for highly esteemed individuals, the linen was often sourced from religious temples that transferred spiritual power to the individual for their journey to the afterlife.
Found in Thebes, donated by King Edward VII to the British Museum in 1869. (EA22814).
Bibliography: British Museum (n.d.). Human Mummy; Mummy-Wrapping | British Museum. [online] www.britishmuseum.org. Available at: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA22814_2.
Filer, J. and British Museum (2003). The Mystery of the Egyptian Mummy: Find Out All About Hornedjitef, an Ancient Egyptian Priest. New York: Oxford University Press In Association With The British Museum.
Peck, W.H. (2013). The Material World of Ancient Egypt. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mummy of Preist Ankhor
C.722-332 BCOnly the elite in ancient Egypt could afford mummification, with embellishments such as amulets, beaded nets, and highly decorated coffins reserved for the highest ranks such as royalty and priests.
This mummy, purchased by the Rijkmuseum, belonged to Ankhor, a high priest who worked in the temple of the war god Montu in Thebes. His status is reflected through his highly embellished mummy. The blue faience beaded net placed over his mummy features a linen winged sarcab beetle on the chest. The beetle symbolizes rebirth and is placed near the heart, which the Egyptians considered the most vital organ. Below the beetle are the Four Sons of Horus, also crafted in linen. Each son guarded specific organs, protecting Ankhor in his passage to the afterlife.
First purchased by Flemish Colonel B.E.A. Rottiers from an Armenian dealer, then purchased by the Rijksmuseum in 1826.
Bibliography
Pinch, G. (2002). Egyptian Mythology: a Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
Riggs, C. (2014). Unwrapping Ancient Egypt. A&C Black.
Rijksmuseum Leiden (2021). De Bekendste Mummie - Rijksmuseum Van Oudheden. [online] Rijksmuseum van Oudheden. Available at: https://www.rmo.nl/museumkennis/egypte/de-voorwerpen/de-bekendste-mummie/ [Accessed 30 Nov. 2024].
Painted Linen Shroud of the Dancer Min, Seusertsetes
Ptolemaic Period, 305-30 BC| This painted Shroud is an example of a highly embellished mummy covering. Similar to a cartonnage mask, shrouds were used to depict the features and identity of the deceased during life. This fine linen shroud depicts a dancer named Min-Seusertsetes and is adorned with celestial symbols such as a winged scarab beetle and the Four Sons of Horus, who were believed to protect the mummy’s body. Min Seusertsetes is also represented in the fashions of the time - wearing a detailed beaded collar and wig called a maat. |
From Akhmim - acquired by the British Museum in 1886 from a ‘Piggott.’ (EA17177).
Bibliography
Pinch, G. (2002). Egyptian Mythology : a Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.
The British Museum. (2024a). Mummy-Wrapping | British Museum. [online] Available at: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA17177 [Accessed 25 Nov. 2024].
Cartonnage Mummy Mask
11th Dynasty (c.2150-1991 BC)Cartonnage mummy masks were a method of displaying the features of the deceased on the outside of the wrapped body. Often they would be depicted as youthful with eyes wide, perhaps looking eagerly into the afterlife. These masks, as well as the cartonnage cases individuals would lay in, would be made with layers of linen hardened with wet plaster.
This example of a mummy mask found at the Petrie Museum has been damaged near the eye. Looking closely at this gap, you can see the layers of linen woven underneath the painted plaster. The damage can allow us to observe the varied and intricate uses of linen as well as it’s cultural significance within ancient Egyptian ritual practice.
Found in Tomb 2101 of Dudufi, now housed in the Petrie Museum. (UC.31377).
Bibliography
Filer, J. and British Museum (2003). The Mystery of the Egyptian Mummy: Find Out All About Hornedjitef, an Ancient Egyptian Priest.
New York: Oxford University Press In Association With The British Museum.
Petrie Museum (2015a). Cartonnage Mummy Mask. [online] Ucl.ac.uk. Available at: https://collections.ucl.ac.uk/Details/petrie/42665.
Ibis Mummy
30th Dynasty - Ptolemaic Period (c.380-343 BC)The ancient Egyptians believed the afterlife mirrored earthly life, so they mummified important animals to ensure their presence in the next world.
This bird mummy demonstrates an early technique in embalming, using many thin strips of linen arranged in a V-shape pattern, directing attention to the seated figure at the center. This figure depicts the goddess Sekhmet, characterized by her golden sun disc. She was the daughter of Ra and was thought to have healing powers, protecting mummies from disease.
Petrie Museum - Excavated by the Egypt Exploration Society (1964-65) (LDUCE-UC30690)
Bibliography
Petrie Museum (2015b). Ibis Mummy UCL Culture Collections Online | Details. [online] Ucl.ac.uk. Available at: https://collections.ucl.ac.uk/Details/petrie/45494 [Accessed 30 Nov. 2024].
Pinch, G. (2002). Egyptian Mythology: a Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
The British Museum (n.d.). Ancient Egyptian Gods and Goddesses. [online] The British Museum. Available at: https://www.britishmuseum.org/learn/schools/ages-7-11/ancient-egypt/ancient-egyptian-gods-and-goddesses.
Mummy portrait
Roman period, 150-170 ADThis mummy portrait reflects a trend for realistic representation of the dead in tombs following the Roman conquest of Egypt. Although mummification was still practised, this new realistic art style reflects an increased emphasis on status in the living world. The image of the deceased has been extended deliberately to include their clothing, depicting a fine white linen tunic beneath a white mantle. The quality of the linen is demonstrated through wide, light brushstrokes that make it appear translucent, whilst purple trim conveys the expense behind the dyes included in the garment.
Excavated by Sir William Matthew Fliners Petrie in Hawara, date unknown. Preserved in the British Museum, London. (EA74704).
BibliographyBritish Museum (n.d.) Mummy portrait. Roman period, 150–170 AD. Portrait on lime wood with gilded stucco frame, 42.7 x 22.2 x 0.4 cm. Available at: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA74704 (Accessed: 25 November 2024).
Walker, S. and Bierbrier, M.L. (1997) Ancient Faces: Mummy Portraits from Roman Egypt. London: British Museum Press, pp. 14–21.
Linen marks from the wrappings of Henhenet’s mummy
Middle Kingdom, c.a. 2051-2030 BCLinen wrapping taken from Henhenet’s mummy, one of six royal females buried under the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II. Linen marks in the corner of the wrapping refer to the quality of the linen and the officials who oversaw its production and acquisition. This highlights the importance of acquiring high quality linen for important mummies and the level of administrative detail involved in procuring mortuary linen.
Excavated by Edouard Naville for the Egypt Exploration Fund at Thebes. Received by the EEF from the Egyptian government in the division of finds.Acquired by the Museum from the EEF through subscription, 1907. (07.230.1c.2)
Bibliography
Kemp, B.J. (2006) Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. 2nd edn. London: Routledge, pp. 268–273.
Metropolitan Museum of Art (n.d.) Linen marks from the wrappings of Henhenet’s mummy. Middle Kingdom, c. 2051–2030 BC. Linen, 9 x 12 cm. Available at: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/572161 (Accessed: 25 November 2024).
Mummy
Late Predynastic PeriodThis early mummified body dates back to the predynastic period and reflects some of the earliest evidence for mummification. The body itself has not been embalmed nor wrapped but placed in a wicket basket alongside grave goods – including linen. This reflects the early inclusion of linen alongside mummies prior to it acquiring an important role in the mummification process.
Excavated in Gelebein, date unknown. Acquired by The British Museum, London in 1900. (EA32755).
BibliographyBritish Museum (n.d.) Mummy. Late Predynastic. Human body, wicker, fur, linen, 152 cm length. Available at: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA32755 (Accessed: 25 November 2024).
Animal Mummy
New Kingdom, 1550-1070 BCThe mummy of a baboon in linen bandages. The bandages have eroded in some areas, revealing fur beneath the surface. The surviving bandages are coated in a ‘soil-like’ material.
Many animals were also mummified during the Ancient Egyptian timeline, along with humans. This was because animals were often seen in relation to gods, as many Ancient Egyptian deities were represented by animals. For example the Goddess Isis was represented in the form of birds. Due to this, thousands of animals were found mummified during the great excavation of Egyptian tombs during the 19th and 20th century. Additionally the importance of animals to ancient Egyptians can also be documented in linen textiles, where motifs of animal images were common.
Interestingly a new study conducted by Researchers at the University of Bristol found that mummification techniques used on humans were also used on animals. In this study they found that, the linen wrappings of the mummified animal corpses carried traces of natural products, that coincide with the products used in human embalming materials, such as; pine tree resin, beeswax and oil and were applied to the linen bandages. These materials were used to dry out human bodies in preparation for mummification, in order to prevent decay or rot to the body.
Excavated from Temple of Khons. Acquired by the British Museum, London in 1837.
Bibliography:
https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA6736
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/news-egyptian-animals-mummies-archaeology#
https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/galleries/egyptian-death-and-afterlife-mummies